Sociological Perspectives on Islam and Society: Functionalism and Conflict Theory

The role of religion in society is a topic that has fascinated many scholars and thinkers throughout history. Religion is a complex phenomenon that can have multiple effects on social life, depending on various factors. In this essay, I will discuss some of the main sociological perspectives on religion and society, and some of the arguments and evidence that support them.

One of the most influential sociological perspectives on religion is functionalism, which views religion as a source of social cohesion and integration. According to functionalists, religion performs several important functions for society, such as:

- Providing a sense of meaning and purpose to human existence, especially in the face of uncertainty and suffering.

- Reinforcing social solidarity and harmony by creating a shared set of values and norms.

- Regulating social behavior by prescribing moral rules and sanctions.

- Enhancing physical and mental well-being by offering comfort, hope, and coping strategies.

- Inspiring social change by challenging the status quo and advocating for social justice.

Some of the classic functionalist theorists of religion include Émile Durkheim, who argued that religion is a collective expression of the sacred; Bronislaw Malinowski, who emphasized the role of religion in dealing with crises; and Talcott Parsons, who analyzed the contribution of religion to social order.

Another sociological perspective on religion is conflict theory, which views religion as a source of social inequality and conflict. According to conflict theorists, religion serves the interests of the dominant groups in society, such as:

- Legitimizing and rationalizing the existing social structure and power relations.

- Justifying and reproducing the exploitation and oppression of the subordinate groups.

- Diverting the attention and resistance of the masses from their material conditions and grievances.

- Fostering hostility and violence among different religious groups or between religious and secular forces.

Some of the prominent conflict theorists of religion include Karl Marx, who regarded religion as an ideology that masks the reality of class struggle; Max Weber, who linked the rise of capitalism to the Protestant ethic; and Antonio Gramsci, who coined the concept of cultural hegemony to explain how dominant ideologies shape people's consciousness.

A third sociological perspective on religion is symbolic interactionism, which focuses on the micro-level interactions and meanings that people attach to their religious experiences. According to symbolic interactionists, religion is a social construction that emerges from people's interpretations and negotiations of reality. Religion involves:

- Defining what is sacred and profane, and how to distinguish between them.

- Creating symbols, rituals, stories, and myths that express and communicate religious beliefs and values.

- Developing a sense of identity and belonging based on religious affiliation and participation.

- Negotiating roles and relationships within religious communities and institutions.

Some of the notable symbolic interactionist theorists of religion include George Herbert Mead, who proposed a theory of self based on social interaction; Peter Berger, who analyzed the process of socialization into religion; and Clifford Geertz, who proposed a cultural approach to understanding religion.

In addition to these three major perspectives, there are also other sociological approaches that examine the relationship between religion and society from different angles. For example, some sociologists of religion study how different types of religions (such as monotheistic, polytheistic, or secular) affect social development and change. Others explore how various factors (such as historical context, cultural diversity, or level of religiosity) influence the role and impact of religion in society. Still others investigate how religion interacts with other social institutions (such as politics, economy, or education) or social issues (such as gender, race, or environment).

Islam cannot be easily categorized into one sociological perspective. Different Muslim groups and individuals may support different perspectives depending on their historical, cultural, and political contexts. However, some possible connections can be made based on the literature.

Some Muslims may support the functionalist perspective because they believe that Islam provides a comprehensive way of life that guides them in all aspects of their existence. Islam also fosters a sense of community and solidarity among Muslims, who are expected to help each other and cooperate for the common good. Islam also regulates social behavior by prescribing moral rules and sanctions, such as the five pillars of faith, the Sharia law, and the concept of halal and haram. Islam also encourages social change by challenging injustice and oppression, and promoting peace and justice.

Some Muslims may support the conflict perspective because they see Islam as a liberating force that challenges the domination and exploitation of the powerful elites and the Western hegemony. Islam also offers a critique of capitalism and consumerism, and advocates for a more equitable and sustainable economic system based on Islamic principles, such as zakat (charity), riba (interest), and tawhid (unity). Islam also recognizes the diversity and pluralism of human societies, and calls for dialogue and cooperation among different religious and cultural groups.

Some Muslims may support the symbolic interactionist perspective because they emphasize the personal and subjective aspects of their religious experiences. Islam allows for different interpretations and understandings of its sources, such as the Quran, the Sunnah, and the Hadith. Islam also encourages creativity and innovation in expressing and communicating religious beliefs and values, such as through art, literature, music, and media. Islam also fosters a sense of identity and belonging based on religious affiliation and participation, which can vary across time and space.

These are some of the possible ways that Islam can relate to the sociological perspectives on religion and society. However, these are not mutually exclusive or fixed categories, as Muslims may adopt different perspectives in different situations or combine elements from different perspectives in their own views. Therefore, more research is needed to understand the diversity and complexity of Islam and its role in society.

Ibn Khaldun was a 14th century Muslim scholar who is widely regarded as the founder of sociology and the author of the Muqaddimah, a prolegomenon to his universal history of the Arab and Berber peoples. He developed a scientific method of studying history and society based on his observation and analysis of the patterns and cycles of human civilization. He also introduced many concepts and terms that are still relevant for sociological perspectives, such as asabiyya (social cohesion), umran (civilization), badawa (nomadism), hadara (sedentarism), and ibda (innovation).

God is the cause of all causes. He created all existing things. He determines all their properties and shapes. He knows their final ends. He alone creates everything that exists, out of nothing. He alone is the Creator who has no need of anything. All other things are created beings that need Him for their existence.

هُوَ اللَّهُ الْخَالِقُ الْبَارِئُ الْمُصَوِّرُ لَهُ الْأَسْمَاءُ الْحُسْنَى يُسَبِّحُ لَهُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَهُوَ الْعَزِيزُ الْحَكِيمُ

He is Allah, the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner; His are the most beautiful names. Whatever is in the heavens and earth glorifies Him. He is the Almighty, the All-Wise. (Quran, 59:24)

Religion is an institution that God has chosen for His creatures in order to indicate to them through prophecy the way in which they should worship Him and how they should behave toward one another in this world.

وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلَّا كَافَّةً لِلنَّاسِ بَشِيرًا وَنَذِيرًا وَلَكِنَّ أَكْثَرَ النَّاسِ لَا يَعْلَمُونَ

We have sent you ˹O Prophet˺ only as a deliverer of good news and a warner to all humanity, but most people do not know. (Quran, 34:28)

The religious law (shari'a) is a compendium of rules derived from the Qur'an and the Sunnah, which are the sources of all good and wisdom. It contains prescriptions for worship, morals, transactions, punishments, and other matters pertaining to human life.

شَرَعَ لَكُمْ مِنَ الدِّينِ مَا وَصَّى بِهِ نُوحًا وَالَّذِي أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ وَمَا وَصَّيْنَا بِهِ إِبْرَاهِيمَ وَمُوسَى وَعِيسَى أَنْ أَقِيمُوا الدِّينَ وَلَا تَتَفَرَّقُوا فِيهِ كَبُرَ عَلَى الْمُشْرِكِينَ مَا تَدْعُوهُمْ إِلَيْهِ اللَّهُ يَجْتَبِي إِلَيْهِ مَنْ يَشَاءُ وَيَهْدِي إِلَيْهِ مَنْ يُنِيبُ 

He has ordained for you of religion what He enjoined upon Noah and that which We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], and what We enjoined upon Abraham and Moses and Jesus - to establish the religion and not be divided therein. Difficult for those who associate others with Allah is that to which you invite them. Allah chooses for Himself whom He wills and guides to Himself whoever turns back [to Him]. (Quran, 42:13)

The religious sciences are those that have to do with the Qur'an and the Sunnah. They are divided into two kinds: those that deal with interpretation (tafsir) and understanding (fiqh) of the religious law, and those that deal with its transmission (riwaya) and verification (diraya).

The natural sciences are those that have to do with nature and its phenomena. They are divided into two kinds: those that deal with the essence (jawhar) and quality (kayf) of natural things, such as logic, physics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc., and those that deal with their causes (illa) and effects ('athar), such as metaphysics, theology, ethics, politics, etc.

The historical sciences are those that have to do with human civilization (umran) and its stages. They are divided into two kinds: those that deal with the description (khabar) and narration (akhbar) of past events, such as history, biography, genealogy, etc., and those that deal with the explanation ('ilm) and evaluation (taqwim) of their causes and effects, such as sociology ('ilm al-'umran), economics ('ilm al-mal), geography ('ilm al-buldan), etc."

Civilization (umran) is a situation in which people cooperate in order to achieve a common goal. It is based on social cohesion (asabiyya), which is a natural disposition that makes people inclined to help one another. Social cohesion is stronger among nomads (badawa) than among sedentary people (hadara), because nomads face more hardships and dangers that require mutual assistance.

Civilization has three stages: the stage of necessity (darura), in which people satisfy their basic needs; the stage of luxury (fakhr), in which people enjoy comforts and pleasures; and the stage of decay (inhitat), in which people become corrupted and decadent. Civilization follows a cycle of rise and fall that lasts for about 120 years.

Civilization is influenced by various factors, such as climate, geography, religion, politics, economy, culture, etc. These factors affect the character and behavior of people, as well as their achievements and failures. Civilization also influences these factors in return, creating a dynamic interaction between them.

Civilization is subject to innovation (ibda) and imitation (taqlid). Innovation is the introduction of new ideas and practices that improve civilization. Imitation is the adoption of existing ideas and practices that maintain civilization. Innovation requires intelligence ('aql) and courage (shaja'a). Imitation requires memory (hifz) and obedience (ta'a). Innovation leads to progress (taraqqi). Imitation leads to stagnation (inqirad).